Iliad and Odyssey Switch in Ethos - 1061 Words

Switch In Ethos During The Iliad we see the warrior ethos as being the main ethos, but as we transfer to The Odyssey we see the transformation from warrior ethos to domestic ethos. Furthermore, the novel is based on domestic ethos and how home affects the warrior. Throughout The Odyssey we see Odysseus trying to make his way home after the Trojan War. On his adventure home he goes through trials and challenges before he actually makes it home. He has to outsmart people to be able to get where he wants to with out dying. This task is not easy but eventually he makes it. Moreover, we realize that warrior ethos is not the major ethos represented in the novel. It is domestic ethos. Odysseus learns how to use the domestic ethos to his†¦show more content†¦After she tested Odysseus she then realizes that it was actually him. Furthermore, she tells him that the reason why she was hesitant in talking to him was because she did not want to get in bed with a stranger. She still loved Odysseus and waited for his return home so that she could be with him. Finally, Odysseus realizes that she is truly in love with him and that she waited for him to come back. If you truly love someone then you will wait for that person and that is what she did. All three of these episodes connect with each other. They all show how much Odysseus truly loved Penelope throughout the whole novel. If that is not present then it would be a different story. Odysseus truly loved her and did what he could to get home to see her. Moreover, it also shows from each episode how Odysseus showed the domestic ethos for every situation he was in. The transformation from warrior ethos to domestic ethos is present throughout the whole novel. In conclusion, we see how throughout the whole novel Odysseus is trying to get home to his wife. Even though warrior ethos was present throughout The Iliad we see how the warrior handles the domestic ethos in The Odyssey. At the end of the novel we see how true lo ve waits for the right person even if it takes twenty years for that person to return home. Penelope was a patient wife and Odysseus was struggling to get home. Even though it took

Media Role Models and the Effect on Children - 3275 Words

Media construct our culture, and the media we use to communicate with one another shapes our perception of reality. Our society is centered on media, it is the most influential factor in constructing our culture, but is it a positive culture? If we examine the effect that media has on children, we can say that it breeds a harmful culture, one that throws values and morals out the window. This is because the media is profit driven and has developed its own code of ethics of anything-goes. As a result, children are exposed to things that they should not necessarily be exposed to yet and as a result it rushes their mental development and in fact moulds their mentality. This is a scary fact because these childrens minds are susceptible†¦show more content†¦Another example we could look at is Britney Spears, young girls who like Britney Spears think that she is ‘cool and thus they strive to be just like her, and this involves acting like Britney and more importantly buyi ng Britney Spears products such as her clothing. So in conclusion these media personalities are popular among children and idolized by them because they are promoted as being cool and for a child to be cool they must be just like them, which involves buying their products. These media personalities are in essence products themselves that the media bodies try to sell to children on the basis of ‘cool, and once they can be sold to the children as being cool, their entire franchise benefits because their image can create the demand for all products with their likeness. Now lets look at the effect that these media personalities have on children in the age group 5 and under. We assume that children are safe watching educational programming such as Blues Clues, Dora the explorer and Teletubbies, but are they really as safe as we think they are. First off, these types of television shows are educational and do in fact teach young children while keeping them entertained. This can be seen as a positive influence on our kids and these characters as being positive roleShow MoreRelatedHypodermic Syringe Model1453 Words   |  6 PagesHypodermic Syringe Model of the Mass Media (33 marks) The Hypodermic Syringe Model suggests that the media are strong and the audience is weak and passive. This means that the messages the media portrays, society will instantly believe without questioning the ideas and morals behind this. The model suggests that children are more susceptible to the messages in the media and accept the information provided as they have not fully developed social skills. In addition to this, the media is thought to ‘inject’Read MoreThe Effects Of Media On Young Children1742 Words   |  7 Pagesbring awareness to the harmful effects of the media on young children. Through this paper, I will investigate the claim that television promotes observational learning. I will describe the obscenities the media exposes to children. With that, I will explain how the media causes aggression in consumers, especially those of youth. This paper will also expound on the powerful effect modeling has on behavior. I will provide extensive examples of the impac t of the media using multiple sources. Read MoreMedia Violence and Aggressive Behavior1277 Words   |  6 Pages Media Violence and Aggressive Behavior Monica Suzanne B. 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You see many teenagers with these games and moviesRead MoreAttempting to Pin Down a Definition of Childhood Essay1716 Words   |  7 Pageshow they define theirs is a different story. ‘Childhood is the time for children to be in school and at play, to grow strong and confident with the love and encouragement of their family and an extended community of caring adults.’(UNICEF, 2005). From a psychological view childhood would be defined as the space between birth and attainment of adulthood; but it is far more than that, it a special time where the child children are safe from violence, free from fear, protected from exploitation andRead MoreThe Between Media And Body Image1348 Words   |  6 Pagesconstructed by the society and by the media. But women are affected that kind of construction. Mass media give narrow definition about the standard of beauty. Delis noticed this massage everywhere, especially in the media, â€Å"I am so affected by Glamour magazine and Vogue and all that; I’m looking at all these beautiful women. They’re thin. I want to be just as beautiful. I want to be just as thin. Because that is what guys like† (Hesse-Biber, Sharlene Nagy 12). The media representation of the thin idealRead MoreMedia s Representation Of Body Image1532 Words   |  7 PagesThe influence of the media on all aspect of society has spread like wildfire especially in the United States. One specific influence by the media is body image, large number of young women and girls look up to people in the media and are influenced by the way they look. Now days you’re appraised on your attractiveness, the way you look, the way you dress, and especially how thin you are. The media’s representation of body image has contributed to the social trend of an unhealthy lifestyle. WomenRead MoreBad Influence of Mass Media on Kids1499 Words   |  6 Pagesfewer hours with their children. As a result, outside influences have greater access and influence over our children than ever before. The internet and the media are bringing the outside world into your home; your childs peers; the influences on children from movies and the music they listen to are growing in importance and influence every day, the negative effects of television violence to children, negative effects marijuana, cigarettesRead MoreThe Traditional Roles of Women in the 1970 ´s 1274 Words   |  5 Pagesbeing dependent on men, sex objects for men and not being able to make important decisions (Wenner and Jackson, 2009). One way adverts have portrayed women is stereotypically, emphasising on the importance of women looking pretty, the traditional roles of being a good housewife and mother. In 1950’s, ad verts depicted women always at home and being a good housewife, cleaning, cooking and serving dinner, trying to impress their husbands and enjoying the latest kitchen appliance. The adverts may haveRead MoreSocial Media And Its Effects On Society1017 Words   |  5 PagesSocial media and media is used worldwide for multiple purposes, but it can create a toxic environment for many of the young people who use it. Beauty is said to be in the eye of the beholder, but our society has a tendency of setting specific beauty standards. Beauty standards are not only set in the United States, but all over the world. Television shows and magazines, such as Cosmopolitan set certain standards for young women around the world. Media platforms set nearly unattainable goals for young

Australia the Movie Synopsis, History and Comparisons Free Essays

In Australia, an aboriginal medicine man/witch doctor, King George was teaching a young aborigine named Nullah how to do various tasks in the Outback. When all of the sudden a group white men shoot King George with an arrow. Then, Nullah rides home on his horse to his home in Faraway Downs. We will write a custom essay sample on Australia the Movie: Synopsis, History and Comparisons or any similar topic only for you Order Now He hears people coming and is scared that someone will take him away from his family, so he goes into hiding. However, the voices he hears and people he sees are Drover and Sarah. The property of Faraway Downs is Sarah’s and her husband’s. When Sarah goes into her property she finds that her husband has been killed and he is lying dead across a table. Because of this Sarah decides she wants to sell her property to the Carney Empire. However, if Faraway Downs is sold, the company will have a monopoly over the cattle business. Sarah soon finds out from Nullah that Carney is stealing her cattle and driving them across the river. Soon after she hears the news she fires Fletcher (the current driver for her cattle) and hires Drover to drive in their 1,500 cattle. They need 7 people in all to successfully drive them all in so, Sarah, Nullah, his mother and grandmother, and an aborigine named Magarri offer their help. They could still use one more person but no others are willing or capable. Then one morning the police appear at the house and are looking for Nullah and his mother who are hidden in the water tower. Sadly, his mother drowns in the tower because the tank filled up when one of the men used the faucet to cool down. Now Nullah is motherless so Sarah decides to give it a shot and raise him herself. She does not do a wonderful job of this because she does not have any children of her own. Fletcher creates a stampede by lighting the brush on fire and has the cows heading towards a cliff. Some fall off the cliff but many cows were saved because Nullah resorted to song and magic to stop the cattle. Fletcher is attempting to hurt their cattle and destroy their plans on saving Faraway Downs by killing cattle, burning items and poisoning waterholes. At a ball Carney attempts to convince Sarah to sell Faraway Downs to him. However, she refuses and tells him that it is no longer for sale. A few days later Fletcher pushes Carney into water where an alligator attacked and killed him. Also, Nullah goes missing. But Drover believes he is safe and protected by King George. Unfortunately they are not safe and are caught by the police where Nullah is sent to the mission and King George is put in jail. There is a treat of war in the city of Darwin so the town is being evacuated. Sarah searches for Nullah and can hear his singing but cannot find him. He is being sent to another island to work on a mission. While Sarah is working at an Army radio headquarters Japanese planes bomb the headquarters and the building catches on fire. Also, the jail is hit and King George escapes. Drover thinks Sarah has died and rescues Nullah and the other children from the explosion on the island. Sarah survives the explosion and is reunited with her love, Drover and Nullah. Afterwards, they return safely to their farm and all survive the explosions and save their cattle from Carney and Fletcher. Australia History During the 1930’s Germany was expanding its territory and in 1939 they threatened to invade Poland. Germany decided to disobey Britain and France when they told Germany that they would declare war if Poland was invaded. The Australian people do not approve of the German expansion and because they are a British nation they were pulled into the war along with Britain (www. nzacday. org). Australia declared war on Germany on September 3, 1939 and joined the war in Europe to aid its Allies in the United Kingdom (www. worldwariihistory. com). Australia was forced to make a tough decision: to watch after homeland in case Japan attempted to expand its power, or send troops to aid England in the war. Because Japan pledged its neutrality and the British naval base in Singapore would stop any Japanese invasions towards Australia, they decided to commit itself to the European War. Australian troops were not prepared to fight and risk their lives in war. This caused he Royal Australian Navy to be put under British control. They began to train and recruit men and they helped the Royal Air Force in the war against Germany (www. anzacday. org). During 1940 and 1941 troops in Australia helped capture Bardia and Tobruk in Libya because they saw action in North Africa and the Middle East. Once Japan bombed Pearl Harbor and the war was brought closer to Australian homeland, Australia declared war on Japan. The most direct threat that Australia faced was New Guinea. Thankfully, the Americans held off a naval attack on Australia at the Battle of the Coral Sea in May 1942. By the end of WWII, Australia has lost about 30,000 men and women (www. worldwariihistory. com). Also, the Indigenous people of Australia were driven out by the British and many were killed and driven out of their homes. The deaths of aborigines occurred because of the diseases spread by Europeans, the introduction of domestic animals destroyed many natural habitats and fighting in Tasmania. During the early 20th century laws were passed to segregate and protect aborigines. This caused restrictions on where they could live, and work. Families were also broken up (www. australianexplorer. com). Also, during WWII aborigines under the age of five were taken from their homes by white men and sent to live with white families. The British did this because the Australian government thought their race lacked a solid future. The children were never reunited with their families (http://history. howstuffworks. com). Unfortunately after WWII the British wanted to ‘Europeanize’ them. In this case all rights were taken away from the aborigines. During the 1960’s, the aborigines were given citizenship status but in 1972 they were given limited rights to their own land (www. australianexplorer. com). Australia Analysis During World War II in the 1930’s and 1940’s there are many similarities and differences in Australia the movie compared to the country’s real history. A similarity between history and Hollywood is that they both go into great detail on how horribly the British treated the aborigines of Australia. A difference between the two was how little detail the movie Australia went into when it came down to the war itself and its allies. Throughout the movie the director, Baz Luhrmann does not focus on the key points of the outcome of WWII, the disaster and hardship it put on Australia, and the effects on its people and cities. A similarity of the treatment of aborigines is that in the movie the aborigines were taken away from their families and homes. This was known as the Stolen Generation in Australia. During the movie they were sent away to work on missions on different islands and were rarely seen again by their families. Although this did occur in reality the children were mainly forcefully sent or tricked into living with a white family. The parents were sometimes unaware that their children were even still alive. The government would often tell them their child had died. Where in reality they are living with a white family so they have a chance at a better future. A difference between the movie Australia and reality is how little detail Baz Luhrmann displays on the actual war itself. Throughout the entire movie except for the end, the main idea is focused on cattle and the Stolen Generation. However during the end, WWII begins to take place and the movie displays the war aspect. It does not explain how the war began, the final result, or the results on Australian people. The war began in Germany because they tried to expand their territory into Poland. France and Britain declared war and because Australia was British territory they also joined in the fight. The movie did include when Japan attacked close to Australia at Pearl Harbor, which caused them to go to war against each other. By the end WWII Australia lost about 30,000 men and women. How to cite Australia the Movie: Synopsis, History and Comparisons, Essay examples

Spiders Essay Research Paper Spiders can be free essay sample

Spiders Essay, Research Paper Spiders can be found in all environments throughout the full universe, except in the air and sea. ( Biology of Spiders, R.Foelix ) These invertebrates of the order Aranea are one of the several groups of the Class Arachnida, with about 30 four 1000 species. They range in organic structure size from merely a few millimetres in length to about five inches. All are carniverous and have four brace of walking legs, one brace of pedipalps, and one brace of chelicerae. ( Spiders, W.Shear ) Each chelicerae consists of a base and a Fang. The Fang folds up indoors of a channel in the base until needed when assailing nutrient, so moves out to bite and releases venom from a bantam gap at its terminal as it penetrates the quarry. ( Biology Of Spiders, R.Foelix ) They are besides used to # 8220 ; chew # 8221 ; , acquiring digestive juices inside the organic structure of the quarry so squashing out the liquid tiffin. The pedipalps are chiefly used to catch and revolve the quarry while the chelicerae inject it with toxicant to rupture down the tissue. Subsequently the bases of the pedipalps are used as mastication parts. ( The Spider Book, J.Comstock ) But in males, these palps are used to reassign sperm into the female. These twleve extremities are attached to a dorsal and a ventral home base, the shell and breastbone which cover the full prosoma and supply attachment points. The organic structures of spiders consist of two parts, an anterior portion called the prosoma and a posterior part called the opisthsoma. These two parts are held together by a narrow chaff called the pedicle. This narrow junction allows for the spider to be really supple and Acts of the Apostless slightly as a flexible joint between the prosoma and opisthosoma. So as a spider moves foward making a web, it can go on in a consecutive line throwing its webbing in the way it chooses. This is how spiders create their zigzag web formations. ( Biology of Spiders, R.Foelix ) Covering both the prosoma and the opisthosoma is a waxy covering that enables the spider to be a really efficient H2O conserver. This is one of the features that spiders evolved to accommodate to the harsh conditions of tellurian life. There are eight eyes located in the head part normally in two rows, changing among households. Spiders that delay for and lurch at its quarry will hold a row of really big eyes good adapted at observing the precise distance it is from its quarry. Yet those spiders that make webs do non hold every bit great a demand for such advanced sight and have smaller eyes. But non all spiders have eight eyes. There are some ptyalizing spiders that have merely six, and there are some with lone two or four eyes. Some cave spiders have no eyes at all and rely merely on quiver. There are great differences in the ways which spiders gaining control quarry. Some may stalk their quarry, while others may prevarication in delay and ambuscade it. Other spiders may weave assorted types of webs used to capture go throughing quarry, and there are some smaller commensal spiders that live in larger spiders # 8217 ; webs and provender on the smaller insects neglected by their host. ( The Spider Book, J.Comstock ) All spiders spin silk, though non all of them weave webs. Silk is most normally seen used in organizing webs, which may change from a extremely elaborated eyeball of gyrating togss to a individual sticky twine. Most webs can be placed into one of four different types: the eyeball webs, the funnel webs, tangle webs, and the sheet webs. The chief intent of a web is for catching quarry. With orb weavers ( Araneidae ) , the spider will foremost organize a encouraging construction of frame togss to which it will so add on radial togss. ( Biology of Spiders, R.Foelix ) These tightly strung togss provide speedy entree to any where on the web, and besides transport any quivers from the outer margin to the centre. ( The Spider Book, J.Comstock ) After the innitial togss are placed, the spider will construct on a catching coiling made of gluey silk. These spirals will be what gaining control and trap quarry until the spider is able to make it and shoot it with its venom. Orb webs are really delicate and lose their stickyness after a short period. So many orb weavers take down and replace their old webs day-to-day. ( Spiders, W.Shear ) They recycle the old silk by eating it as they lay out the new silk. Orb weavers must besides see orientation with regard to where the air current is coming from, because they will besides snag foliages and blowing dust. ( The Spider Book, J.Comstock ) When the eyeball is completed, many orb weavers remain in the centre of the web called the hub. They will wait here for their quarry. When the web is hit by an insect, the spider turns in the hub to face the way from where the quiver came. It will so yank the web aggressively to mire the victim by quickly flexing one of its front legs. ( Biology of Spiders, R.Foelix ) Finally after it is certain that the quarry is stuck in the web, the spider will follow down the strand. Once it is at a close adequate distance to do contact, the spider will hotfoot at and rapidly seize with teeth its victim, so withdraw off until the venom has taken affect. After repressing the quarry, the spider will wrap it in silk before or after transporting it back to its hub or the site it may take to conceal. There are more than 2000 orb weaving species and no two species construct precisely the same web. ( The Spider Book, J.Comstock ) But in most instances the differences are really minor and lone concern the symmetricalness of the web. ( Biology of Spiders, R.Foelix ) But there are three demensional eyeball weavers that add excess togss from the centre to an exterior support, therefore drawing out the web into a cone form. This enables the spider to wait at the new fond regard sometimes being the attaching span. When an insect flies into the web country the spider may cut or merely let go of the Wednesdaies so that it goes back and ensnares the winging victim. ( Spiders, W.Shear ) Funnel webs spiders ( Agelenidae ) are besides common spiders. They can be easy found out-of-doorss in short grasses or little shrubs, to big flora, and even between edifice borders. Their level web narrows into a funnel like closing at one terminal where the spider fells and delaies for victims. This funnel is the spider # 8217 ; s retreat, and is opened at both terminals. With its legs experiencing for any quiver, the spider can rapidly ambuscade any insect that may drop the ball into its web, fliting out and seize with teething it. ( Spiders, W.Shear ) The insect will non be eaten where it is captured, but will be taken back into the spider # 8217 ; s withdraw where the feeding procedure will really take topographic point. Sheet webs do non hold any stickyness to them nor is there a fixed form by which they are placed. Alternatively an insect that may go through by will go embroiled in the perpendicular strands that act like a tripping line, connected to the spider # 8217 ; s sheet web underneath. Sheet web spiders ( linyphiids ) ever hang beneath their dome web, and when there is prey trapped in the perpendicular strands, they will agitate the web so that it will autumn onto the sheet. The spider will so draw its victim down through the web while seize with teething and poisoning it. The tangle web spiders are much like the linyphiids, but their sheet has a much more loose and irregular form. Widening down from the sheet are perpendicular strands that are slackly connected to the land, and are covered with gluey droplets a few milimeters from the land. An insect passing by that touches one will lodge to it and interrupt it from the land. While seeking to draw free it will embroil itself up in more similar strands while the spider drops down to repress it. Some of these spiders build retreats that they cover with soil and pieces of foliages that they will conceal in and transport quarry into to eat. A fluctuation of this retreat is that of the bag web spider ( Atypus ) . This spider has a satiny retreat that is largely buried resistance but has a baloon like tubing outside that is covered with dirt and spots of dust to look like normal land. When an insect walks across or lands on it the spider will seize with teeth it from beneath and draw it through the web. Spiders do non merely utilize togss to do webs and edge quarry. Non web weavers use silk togss to mount up and down with, every bit good as for draglines. These latter togss are used to both assist a spider slow down and to catch it incase it falls as it leaps from one topographic point to the following, such as from flower to bloom. Jumping spiders, most common to the category Salticidae, are known for utilizing draglines for anchoring and speedy Michigans. These spiders use their last brace of legs to propell them from the land in long or short springs. Salticids usage this jumping ability non merely for gimmick quarry but besides to get away danger. These spiders can leap up to twenty five times their organic structure length, which is really long for an insect with out any specialised jumping legs. As mentioned earlier leaping spiders have larger eyes for being able to distinguish seeable objects at greater distances. ( Biology of Spiders, R.Foelix ) This makes good since, because they have no other manner to obtain quarries but with their ain stealing and truth. They react really accutely to any ocular stimulation. First they will turn to confront the stimulation and so walk closer towards it. They will stalk their quarry until within at least 10 centimetres to be able to wholly place it so onslaught. Once the victim is captured, it is normally consumed right where it is. Their front legs are stronger so that they may prehend quarry, and they have strong perpendicular Fangs to perforate and keep prey house. A similar spider to the jumping spiders is the wolf spider. These spiders lie in ambuscade and assail their quarry. They excessively have a big set of eyes on their upper buttocks row, above a row of four by and large little eyes. Although wolf spiders have good developed eyes, they react chiefly to quivers recieved from crushing wings or motion from insects on the land. As with the jumping spiders, there are a big brace of Fangs that extend down to assist help in prehending quarry. The most good known wolf spider is the European wolf spider. These spiders can make up to 10 inches in their complete lengths. And although traditional knowledge has it that they are one of the most toxicant spiders, their bites are merely painful to worlds, non lifelessly. ( Biology of Spiders, R.Foelix ) Though feeding wonts vary with spiders their methods of reproduction are all comparatively similar, though each species has its ain specific rite. Because spiders are cannabilistic, the much smaller male must be really cautious in nearing a possible mate. If he merely hastes in towards the female, the opportunities are that he will be seen merely as nutrient and consumed. So spider wooing has evolved into a particular complex form that varies in each species. This fluctuation allows for species acknowledgment, so no gametes are was

Should Orcas Be Kept in Captivity free essay sample

Should Orcas be Kept in Captivity? In my opinion I think orcas should not be kept in captivity because they are dangerous. They will not be kept in their natural habitat. And they get stressed from being enclosed. It is to dangerous for orcas to be kept in captivity. They are to hard to understand nobody knows what can happen. What if they go wild or something. What if they can’t control themselves. I mean they are used to doing every thing on their own. What if they get taught. What can happen. Also because they will not be kept in their natural habitat that can cause many things. Like since they know what to do alone then if we were to just like do every thing for them then they will forget to do it alone. All scientist may want is to study the orcas after that they my just let them go. We will write a custom essay sample on Should Orcas Be Kept in Captivity or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page That is not right because learning about something can take years. And in that time the people will do everything for them. Then when it’s time to let them go they won’t know what to do anymore because humans did everything for it. Also because they can get stressed out when being enclosed. Nobody knows what they can do people think look that orca is so cute but dangerous. What if it gets stressed and goes on rage. What will happen now. It can do anything now that it’s crazy. What if it gets to stressed and starts hitting everything and break the window were you can see them under water. They should not be kept in captivity. Orcas should once again not be kept in captivity because they are dangerous. They won’t be in their natural habitat and forget everything. And they are stressed being enclosed.

dolphins essays

dolphins essays Dolphins and porpoises are mammals. They breathe air and give birth to living young then they suckle. They belong to the order or group of mammals called cetaceans, which include whales. Dolphins have beaklike mouths. Porpoises have bunt mouths and are smaller than dolphins. But both dolphins and porpoises are toothed whales, and their close relatives include the killer, sperm and pilot whale. Cetaceans are mammals that returned to the sea. Hind legs disappeared and were replaced by a strongly muscled tail end and flat tail or fluke. The front legs have evolved into flippers. One primitive specie- the Bouto or the river dolphin of the Amazon and other southern American rivers- has finger bones that show clearly in their flippers. Most mammalian hair has also disappeared from the streamlined body of the cetacean. The nostrils for breathing air have gradually moved to the forehead and, in the dolphins and porpoises have become one blow whole, which leads right to the lungs instead of the mouth and throat. The river living dolphins such as the Bouto must come up for air every 30 seconds, but the ocean dolphins can stay in the water for a few minutes. When they surface, a great spout of moist, used air is comes out from the blow wholes. More air is taken in, and they dive again. A dolphin or porpoise baby is born in the water. The mother and another female dolphins, which acts as a nurse, then rush into the surface for the babys first breath of air. They introduce the baby to the deeper water and longer stays under the water the first few weeks. At first they return to the surface for the baby to suckle its mothers milk. Usually only one baby is born at a time. It spends a full year feeding on milk and strays from its mother ...

Literature review- (1000 words) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Literature review- (1000 words) - Essay Example Recent research has focused on both bullies and victims in a number of terms but this literature review will focus on research in relation to gender and age, and the accountings for victims and bullies. There have been a number of definitions provided for bullying, and as Attwood 2004, claimed â€Å"one person’s example of bullying can be another person’s idea of entertainment.† (para.1) Olweus claimed there were two sorts of bullying – direct, wherein the victim is subjected to physical abuse, and indirect, wherein the victim suffers psychological or emotional mistreatment. (as cited in Green, 2007, para.1) Gray defined bullying as repeated damaging actions that were perhaps linked with negative intent. (as cited in Attwood, 2004, What is bullying section, para.1) Seals and Young, (2003) in their study into the occurrence and relationship of bullying to gender, age, ethnicity, self esteem and depression, experienced by seventh and eighth grade students in the northern delta region of the US, showed that there were considerably more male than female bullies, with â€Å"twice as many males identified as females identified as bullies.† (Discussion section, para.2) Delfabbro, Winefield, Tramer, Dollard, Anderson, Metzer and Hammarstrom (2006) also found, in their study into bullying by peers and teachers in secondary schools in South Australia, that boys are â€Å"more likely to be the perpetrators of bullying.† (p.72) Boys have also been found to be more violent and cause injury, therefore bullying by more overt physical means. Girls, on the other hand, tend to be more covert and devious, utilizing such means as spiteful rumour mongering and telling tales or gossiping. Delfabbro et al (2006) stated that â€Å"girls are significant ly more likely to use †¦ non-physical aggression.† (p.72) Victims of bullying are often bullied by others of the same gender; that is to say, boys are bullied by boys and girls are bullied

Macroeconomics. The Solow model Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Macroeconomics. The Solow model - Essay Example The steady state condition is now that s*f(k) = (+n) * k:" (Introducing Population Growth). The Golden rule of Capital maximized the consumption at a steady state. This implies that the marginal product of capital net of depreciation must be equal to the technological progress and population hence growing for ever isn't possible without population and technological progress. The steady state is "c" and this is what is required. The values of steady state are substituted for both output. "(f(k*)) and investment which equals depreciation in steady state (k*) giving usc*=f(k*) - k*" (The Solow Model) 5. The Solow model is very simple and it creates a link between capital-output ratio and in addition to this it also it also creates a link between investment-depreciation ratio. All this is done in a dynamic model. "The main test for any model is how well it holds up against the data. Perhaps the biggest surprise is that despite its simplicity the Solow growth model can be applied to economic data. The results have been mixed though as Acemoglu writes in an extensive review of the literature. This is not necessarily bad news, for it points at some of the other factors that contribute to economic growth and differences across countries. One conclusion that can be drawn from the empirical literature is that cross-country differences in income per capita cannot be understood on the basis of differences in physical and human capital alone." (Solow growth Model) The economic growth is studied with this model and it has laid down a general basis for studying economic growth of an economy. The rate of capital accumulation and the rate of technological progress are two things that this model does not throw light upon and many models have been derived from the Solow model. The world is divided into capital and labour under this model and this is how the model progresses. The firms and households are treated as constants by this and the neoclassical growth model and this is rather considered a very odd feature of this model. "Now the question some may ask is to what extent economic growth is predicated on the use of non-renewable natural resources and thereby ultimately finite. Economic growth and capitalism rely on profit and not so much on production. Therefore both capitalism and economic growth are, in theory at least, reconcilable with sustainability. Differentiating between models of sustainable and unsustainable economic growth may be one of the greatest modelling challenges of the future." (Solow Growth Model) 6. In countries like Australia and Netherlands, the growth dynamics were determined predominantly by European integration. A broader study on the effect of convergence will

Reading respond Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Reading respond - Essay Example Question 2 A business organization brings together people from diverse backgrounds and with abilities that are uniquely different. Among other organizational management skills required for an efficient management organization is the need for an effective communication system. Such a system should recognize the different abilities shown by the staff. The imminent increase in diversity at places of work have had imminent influences on organizational set ups. This has been so irrespective in terms of communication and human behavioral adaptations. The aspect of communication also entails the aspect of giving what would be defined as nonverbal communication. In this sense, it is important to acknowledge that diversity at places of work have led to obvious issues which need to be addressed if the organization setup is to remain as conventional as would be suitable for everyone involved within the organization. A) Effect on communication The imminent issues that would arise from such event ualities affect communication. These are a myriad. However, the most evident would be based on the cultural differences that people inherently have. For instance, some people are from tolerant background while it is naturally anticipated that other people would harbor intolerable traits. In handling the diversities at the places of work, it is important to a strike a balance in making everyone be comfortable with one another irrespective of the cultural or even social background. Language is a tool of communication. In every communication, it forms an important aspect since it facilitates conveyance of message. Common issues that arise in workplaces with diverse personalities are language problems. This might come from persons having intolerable speech impediments or even plain miscommunications due to language issues. People need to be enlightened on the issues that exist in the workplace. Through that, prejudices and misconceptions would be overcome. Consequently, such moves would aid communication in immeasurable ways. B) Nonverbal communication entails using means or platforms which are not audible. These involve using platforms of communication which might be including signs, gestures, or even written notes. In an organization with a diverse background, there are bound to be issues in communication using the nonverbal platform. In such circumstances, communication might be hindered by such issues as levels of technological sophistication. This comes from the fact that there are those persons within the diverse workforce who might have least exposure to technology compared to others. For instance, the older generation would find it hard to communicate with the younger workmates through social media and other similar platforms. Consequently, it is important to bridge the gap between the two groups to aid effective coexistence and effective communication (Gibson 148). Other forms of communication such as gestures might be influenced by cultural backgrounds. This insinuates that people of different cultural backgrounds at a diverse place of work might have unique interpretations to different gestures. For instance, a facial gesture from one employee might insinuate a different meaning altogether to another employee. In such circumstances, such communication might be hampered. Besides, gender and religion also play an important role in gestures as forms of communication amongst the employees of diverse origin. For instance, a gesture to female employee

Follicular Dendritic Cell Sarcoma

Follicular Dendritic Cell Sarcoma Follicular Dendritic Cell Sarcoma and its paraneoplastic manifestations: Review Abstract:  Follicular Dendritic Cell Sarcoma (FDCS) is a rare neoplasm arising from dendritic cells. The paraneoplastic phenomena are an underreported aspect of FDCS. Here we present a case report of FDCS presenting with autoimmune haemolytic anaemia and have done a detailed review of all its paraneoplastic manifestations. Follicular Dendritic Cell Sarcoma (FDCS) is a rare malignancy, which arises from the follicular dendritic cells. It was first described by Monda et al who describes a series of 4 cases(1). Being a relatively new entity, its classification remains a subject of controversy. It has been variously described as lymphoma, sarcoma and histiocytic neoplasm. It has been grouped under histiocytic and dendritic cell neoplasms by the WHO 2008 classification(2) There is considerable under-reporting of this[G1] entity as it usually presents with unremarkable clinical and radiological features. It is not uncommon to misdiagnose these cases as lymphoma due to many similarities in the morphological features between the two entities. With the emergence of modern immunohistochemistry, the dendritic cell lineage can be confirmed and therefore, there is increasing recognition of this group of disorders. Since the first description in 1986, nearly 350 cases of FDCS have been reported(3) including 11 cases from our country(4) FDCS generally presents as a slow growing, well circumscribed painless mass with a median size of 5 cm(2).   Constitutional symptoms are not usually seen at presentation.   Young to middle-aged adults are affected, without any sex predilection. Over fifty percent of the cases are nodal with cervical and axillary lymph nodes being the most common sites(2). The common extranodal sites include tonsils, nasopharynx, palate,entire gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, liver, peritoneum, and lungs.Computerized[G2]Tomography (CT) scan typically shows morphological aspects of an expansive mass with an increasingly inhomogeneous enhancement, directly proportional to lesion size (due to central necrosis, hemorrhage, and cystic changes with a patchy pattern) (5)[G3] Local recurrence in FDCS is more likely than distant metastasis. More than 50% of the cases recur locally after wide local excision while only 25% cases develop distant metastasis.   FDCS is considered as a low-grade malignancy by some while others consider it as an intermediate-grade malignancy[G4](6, 7). Liu et al have proposed [G5]histological criteria for grading the tumor and assessing the risk of recurrence.[G6](8). [G7][G8] Variations in clinical behavior of FDCS are described in the literature.   At one end of the spectrum, FDCS presenting with multifocal abdominal or pelvic mass behaves like an aggressive tumor (13) on the other hand, FDCS of the liver and spleen presents like an inflammatory pseudotumor and usually has a female predominance. (3) Castlemans disease has been found to be associated with FDCS in a few patients(9-11). It has been proposed that the dysplastic changes and FDC proliferation which occur in Castlemans disease may act as the nidus from which FDCS can evolve.(12)Ebstein-Barr Virus has also been described in association with FDCS especially when the liver or spleen is involved.   CD21 expression on the FDC cells has been suggested to be the entry point for EBV in affected cells.(7) FDCS has also been reported to be associated with secondary amyloidosis(13) FDCS mostly arises within lymphoid follicles and has a known association with Castlemans disease. Hence it was postulated that it arises from lymphoid precursors. But studies by Krautler et al suggest that they may arise from prevascular stomal precursor cells, which express platelet-derived growt[G9]h factor beta(14) FDCS has a distinct picture on histopathology a storiform arrangement of spindle-shaped cells with elongated nuclei, delicate, dispersed chromatin and pale eosinophilic cytoplasm. Lymphocytes are seen scattered among the tumor cells and they may also be seen gathered around blood vessels,creating a cuffing pattern. Another characteristic pattern is a concentric whorl.FDCS is specifically immunopositive to CD21, CD35, and/or CD23, vimentin, fascin, HLA-DR, EMA, D2-40, clusterin, and CXCL13. It shows variable positivity to CD68, CD45, CD3, and CD20.[G10](7) a unique point in IHC of FDCS is expression of clusterin which is almost always strongly positive , while in other dendritic cell neoplasms, this marker is weakly positive.(13) Surgical excision of the tumor has been attempted in well circumscribed FDCS. Although some reports suggest that they recur soon afterward(15). Pooled data analysis confirms that surgery remains a good option for localized disease(3, 16). In view of the rarity of FDCS, there is no standard chemotherapeutic regimen for the same. Both lymphoma and sarcoma directed therapies have been tried.   CHOP regimen is one of the commonly used with variable results. [G11][G12]CHOP therapy has been postulated to have an indirect action on FDCS by some authors. It has been postulated that CHOP therapy depletes the B lymphocytes leading to a reduction in the growth factors for FDCS[G13](17). Other regimens which have been tried include ABVD, EPOCH, ICE, and cisplatin/epirubicin(13). Gemcitabine and cisplatin in combination with imatinib(18)and single-agent rituximab[G14]are the other reported regimens with some activity against FDCS(19).[G15][G16] Case Report A 60-year-old female presented with 2 months history of easy fatiguability[G17] and low-grade fever. She was detected to have severe anemia[G18] and mild icterus with difficulty in blood cross matching at a local hospital. She was referred to our institute for further evaluation. General examination revealed marked pallor and generalized lymphadenopathy. The liverwas palpable 5 cm below right costal margin and the spleen was palpable 6 cm below left costal margin. Laboratory evaluation revealed Coombs positive hemolytic anemia, which partially responded to steroid therapy. Her Lymph node excision biopsy showed diffuse effacement of nodal architecture with multiple fascicles of spindle cells traversing the lymph node and wrapping around the pre-existing vessels admixed with many eosinophils and plasma cells (Figure 1a-c). Immunohistochemistry for CD20, CD3, S100, CD 45 and PD-1 were negative, whereas CD23 showed strong membranous positivity in these spindle cells (Figure 1d-i).   Th e histopathological examination was suggestive of Follicular dendritic cell sarcoma. Due to the disseminated involvement by FDCS and associated autoimmune hemolytic anemia, she was treated with CHOP chemotherapy. Both disease and anemia responded to therapy. There are numerous case reports of FDCS presenting with similar paraneoplastic manifestations. They are reviewed below.[G19][G20] Paraneoplastic manifestations of FDCS Paraneoplastic manifestations are a constellation of signs and symptoms that are not directly caused by the malignancy(20). All paraneoplastic manifestations reported with FDCS are of an autoimmune nature. Although they appear similar to classic autoimmune diseases, paraneoplastic autoimmune disorders tend to be more aggressive. Their management too is centered in part on the underlying malignancy (AI) A systematic search was performed on Medline and the paraneoplastic manifestations reported with FDCS in English Literature were identified. (table 1) I. Paraneoplastic Pemphigus (PNP) PNP usually presents secondary to an underlying malignancy, mainly Chronic Lymphocytic leukemia, Non Hodgkins Lymphoma, Thymoma and Castlemans disease(21). PNP is the most commonly reported paraneoplastic manifestation with FDCS. There are 22 cases reports in English literature till date. While axillary and cervical lymphadenopathy is the most common presentation of FDCS, PNP has been reported mostly with retroperitoneal FDCS.   The clinical course of PNP is at variation with the relatively benign course of FDCS and most authors have reported death soon after detection of PNP.   An association with the hyaline vascular variant of [G21]Castlemans disease has been described in 27% of these cases. Reports of other malignancies associated with paraneoplastic syndromes suggest that it is associated with an antitumor response. The underlying malignancy remained undetectable for up to a year after the paraneoplastic syndrome first manifested due to this effect. It has been suggested that the immune response against the paraneoplastic antigen in the tumor, slows down the growth of the tumor(22). The status of FDCS is not in remission in most of the available reports.   Thus, there is no evidence to suggest an antitumor effect in patients presenting with PNP. Resection of the underlying FDCS along with oral steroids for the PNP has been the usual treatment, but there are 2 reports of usage of higher immunosuppression to successfully control the PNP(18, 23). II.Myasthenia Gravis (MG) Seven cases of myasthenia gravis have been reported in literature till date. One case was also reported to be associated with Castlemans disease Interestingly, four of the seven cases also had paraneoplastic pemphigus. A similar presentation has been reported with another malignancy involving the immune system. Thymoma has a well-known association with MG. Less commonly, it has also been reported with PNP and there is even a report of Thymoma presenting with both MG and PNP. The authors have suggested that the linkage is indirect, through a triad, which also includes the tumor rather than a direct relation. [G22][G23][G24][G25] A similar linkage may explain the cases of FDCS with MG and PNP. Alternatively, CD which [G26]has known association with both these conditions could be the missing link[G27](24-26). But among available literature, there was no evidence of CD with FDCS and MG in all but one case.[G28][G29][G30] The treatment has been IV immunoglobulin, pyridostigmine, and steroids. Most of the authors have reported a good response to therapy with no mortality.[G31][G32] This is in resonance with the findings of MG with other disorders. Thymoma associated with MG is found to have a better prognosis than thymoma without MG. This has partly been attributed to earlier detection of the disease(27) III. Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia AIHA is a well-known phenomenon in lymphoproliferative disorders. Among the solid organ cancers, a majority of the available literature is with Kaposi sarcoma, lung, kidney and colorectal ca[G33]ncers. It may occur prior to, concurrent with cancer or well after the end of [G34]treatment (28). Two different responses to therapy have been documented with paraneoplastic AIHA. Some cases are steroid resistant and respond to treatment of the primary malignancy. While, AIHA present along with metastatic[G35] cancers are usually steroid responsive.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   [G36] A search of the literature revealed that [G37]ours is only the second case of AIHA with FDCS reported. Conry et al. had reported a 36-year-old African-[G38][G39]American[G40] female who had presented with AIHA not responding to steroids or splenectomy. She presented 1 year later with the abdominal lump which was diagnosed as FDCS. She did not respond to radiotherapy alone but had a good response to chemotherapy with gemcitabine and docetax[G41]el(17). Experience in this case and our case may be insufficient to label AIHA as a paraneoplastic manifestation of FDCS, but several plausible mechanisms of occurrence of AIHA exist in patients of FDCS. And FDCS has known association with other autoimmune paraneoplastic syndromes. So with increased awareness of this association, we hope that more such cases will be documented. [G42][G43] Proposed mechanisms for development of autoimmunity[G44] Castlemans disease is known to be associated with PNP. Several authors have suggested that a preexisting Castlemans may be the cause of PNP in cases of FDCS. Maverakis et al divide paraneoplastic autoimmune disorders broadly into 3 categories:   (i) Disruption of central tolerance, (ii) peripheral immune dysregulation and   (iii) alteration of self-antigens[G45](29). The mechanisms proposed for the occurrence of paraneoplastic phenomena in FDCS are so varied that we could find at least one hypothesis under each of these three headings.[G46] Disruption of Central tolerance 1.Hartert et al and Kim et al have reported immature T cell proliferation, which is not characteristic of FDCS, in those presenting with Myasthenia Gravis. The resulting immune dysregulation may be lead to paraneoplastic phenomena (30, 31). 2. Spreading epitope phenomenon states that cytokines produced by the tumor induce immunoglobulin production, which in turn leads to paraneoplastic phenomena(32). [G47] Peripheral immune dysregulation[G48] 1. B7 is a ligand which required for activation of T cells. Most antigen presenting cells have a low expression of B7 ligand, the only exception being the dendritic cell. The B7 expression on NHL cells[G49] has been proposed as the mechanism underlying autoimmune phenomena seen in them(29). FDCS which arises from dendritic cells may also have a similar mechanism. Alteration of self-antigens[G50] 1.Antibodies directed against the tumor may cross-react with epiderm[G51]al antigens in the case of PNP(32). Shared antigens between FDCS and erythrocytes like CD 35 may be the link in case of Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia Conclusion The paraneoplastic phenomena are an underreported aspect of FDCS. The clinical scenario is not uniform among all FDCS with paraneoplastic phenomena. While PNP is associated with poor prognosis, the available reports on AIHA and MG suggest a relatively benign course. There are only 2 cases of AIHA reported with FDCS. Although the mechanism for the development of AIHA in FDCS has been proposed, there is a possibility that it is simply a [G52]case of 2 unrelated diseases occurring together.   In the times to come, better recognition of this entity amongst pathologists may lead to an identification of a larger number of patients. Thereby our understanding of this rare neoplasm and its even rare[G53][G54]r complication of PNS will improve Table I: Case reports of FDCS with Para Neoplastic Pemphigus No Year Age/Sex Castleman Location of FDCS Therapy given Interval to PNP Status of FDCS when PNP occurred Outcome and comments Ref. 1 1999 66/M + Abdominal Surgery 480 months Post-excision[G55] Died after 8 days (9) 2 2004 64/F Abdominal Surgery 18 months No Alive at 7m (33) 3 2005 32/M + NA Surgery + Chemo NA Not in remission Died at 3m (10) 4 2005 27/F Abdominal NA NA NA NA (34) 5 6 2005 53/F + Abdominal Surgery Simultaneous Not in remission Died at 1 year (35) 7 2008 60/M Lung Nil Simultaneous Post-excision[G56] Died at 6m (19) 8 2008 67/M Abdominal Surgery 1 months Post-excision Relapse at 12m MG+ (36) 9 2010 68/M Abdominal Surgery 1 month Post-excision Died at 24m MG + (31) 10 2011 NA NA NA NA NA Relapsed (11) 11 2011 NA + NA NA NA NA NA (11) 12 2011 NA + NA NA NA NA NA (11) 13 2012 39/F NA Surgery NA NA Alive at 60m (37) 14 2012 67/M NA Surgery Simultaneous Post-excision Died after 21m MG + (37) 15 2012 68/M Abdominal Surgery Simultaneous Post-excision Died at 3m Synchronous thyroid and renal cancer (38) 16 2013 61/F + Abdominal + multiple sites Surgery + Chemo 36 months Not in remission Died (39) 17 2013 28/M + Abdominal Chemo Simultaneous Not in remission NA (40) 18 2013 20/M + Rt pelvis Chemo simultaneous Not in remission Died at 1m (41) 19 2014 46/F Liver Surgery + Chemo 6 months Not in remission Died at 12m (23) 20 2014 20/M Rt parahilar Surgery + Chemo Nil Post-excision Alive at 12m (42) 21 2015 26/F + NA NA NA NA Alive MG+ (43) Case reports of FDCS with Myasthenia Gravis No Year Age/Sex Castleman Location of FDCS Therapy given Interval to MG Status of FDCS when MG occurred Outcome and comments Ref. 1 2008 67/M Abdominal Surgery 1 months Post-excision Relapse at 12 m PNP+ (36) 2 2010 68/M Abdominal Surgery Simultaneous Post-excision Died at 24m PNP+ (31) 3 2010 39/F Mediastinal Surgery 36 months prior to FDCS Not in remission NA (30) 4 2010 72/F + Mediastinal Surgery 7 months prior to FDCS Not in remission Alive at 8m (25) 5 2011 59/F Axillary Surgery 1.5 months Post-excision NA (44) 6 2012 67/M NA Surgery Simultaneous Post-excision Died after 21m PNP+ (37) 7 2015 26/F + NA NA NA NA Alive PNP+ (43) Case reports of FDCS with Auto Immune Hemolytic Anemia No Year Age/Sex Castleman <

St. Boniface Essay -- Christian saints

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  St. Boniface, originally named Winfrith, was an extremely studious man, a converted monk, priest, missionary and finally martyr. Born in 672, near Exeter, England, St. Boniface at an early age developed a desire to follow the path of God and live a monastic life. Through non-stop prayer and religious practices, he tuned his mind and body to reach beyond the obstacles and enticements of everyday life at his young adult age. He was a major influence on society during his life and affected the lives and history of Germany permanently. Often called the â€Å"Apostle of Germany†, St. Boniface was a strong believer in the principles of the Church and truly wanted to open any pagan believers minds to the knowledgeable and rewarding path of the Christian life.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In his youth, St. Boniface encountered many priests or clerics who traveled from town to town. Through these spiritual conversations, it became evident to St. Boniface that he wanted to pursue a life with God. Eventually, after continuos begging and his fathers fatal sickness, he was sent to the care of the Monastery of Examchester. (Appleton) It is here, that St. Boniface expressed to the Abbot at the time, that he wanted to live a monastic life. The father of the monastery, after council, granted him his wish. Here is where the saint began to prove his love for God, and could begin his journey of the Christian life. After exceeding all expectations and surpassing the knowledge of his teachers, he moved to a neighboring monastery, called Nursling, whereby he studied under the influence of Abbot Winbert.(St. Boniface Church) Here he gained vast knowledge of scriptures and the spiritual exposition of the Bible. Here, he gained such a reputation that men and women f rom far and wide traveled to study scriptures under his guidance. At the age of 30 he was humbly ordained a priest and yet another branch of his life was fulfilled.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  St. Boniface once again yearned to explore and travel. Through such ventures he could express the meaning of God to non believers and convert as many as possible. After continuos begging, Abbot Winbert gave in and Boniface’s petition was granted. During this journey, Boniface’s first obstacle appeared. â€Å"King Radbod, the King of the Frisians, and Prince Charles, the noble Duke of the Franks broke out in ... ...spread their religion and did not stop until their death. It is interesting to find out that there were people like that , that dedicated so much of their lives for a cause. I am sure other saints accomplished as much as St. Boniface, but to my knowledge, he seemed like the most active and aggressive. He not only prayed for change, he went out and made it happen. He took journey’s that lasted years, traveled aimlessly at times, from one ship to another converting pagans and spreading the word as he went along. He even went on these missions in his elder years, though dangerous for his age, he continued until his death. Work Cited Page   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Appleton, Robert. â€Å"New Advent.† St. Boniface. 3 November 2004 . Dunney, Joseph. â€Å"Church History, St. Boniface† Catholic Information Network. 20 March 2004   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  .   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Garnett, Ken. â€Å"Medieval Church.org.uk† St. Boniface . St. Boniface Church. â€Å"So-Who was St. Boniface?† St. Boniface Church. 2002-2003   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  . Talbot, C.H. The Anglo-Saxon Missionaries in Germany. New York: Sheed and Ward, 1954.

Anatomy and Physiology: Practice Test

A and P II Chapter 24 practice test 1. Which of the following digestive regions is responsible for the propulsion of materials into the esophagus? Answer: pharynx 2. The active process that occurs when materials enter the digestive tract via the mouth is: Answer: ingestion 3. Sympathetic stimulation of the muscularis externa promotes: Answer: muscular inhibition and relaxation 4. Which of the following statements about peritonitis is false? Answer: It leads to inflammation of the digestive mucosa. 5. Which of the following major layers of the digestive tract is described as a layer of dense irregular connective tissue filled with blood vessels and the plexus of Meissner? Answer: submucosa 6. Strong contractions of the ascending and transverse colon moving the contents of the colon toward the sigmoid colon are called: Answer: mass peristalsis 7. Which of the following salivary glands produce salivary amylase, a carbohydrate-digesting enzyme? Answer: 1. parotid glands 2. sublingual glands 8. Which of the following is not a function of saliva? Answer: initial digestion of proteins 9. The three pairs of salivary glands that secrete into the oral cavity include: Answer: parotid, sublingual, and submandibular 10. Crushing, mashing, and grinding of food are best accomplished by the action of the: Answer: bicuspids 11. The three phases of deglutition are: Answer: buccal, pharyngeal, and esophageal 12. On its way to the esophagus, food normally passes through the: Answer: oropharynx and laryngopharynx 13. The pharyngeal muscles that push the food bolus toward the esophagus are the: Answer: pharyngeal constrictor muscles 14. Solid food and liquids are carried from the pharyngeal region to the stomach by the: Answer: laryngopharynx 15. The inferior end of the esophagus normally remains in a state of active contraction that: Answer: prevents the backflow of materials from the stomach into the esophagus 16. The contractions of the stomach are inhibited by: Answer: secretin 17. Which of the following is secreted by the stomach? Answer: gastrin 18. The division of the small intestine that contains the Brunner glands is the: Answer: duodenum 19. An enzyme not found in pancreatic juice is: Answer: disaccharidase 20. Bile entering the gallbladder must pass through the: Answer: cystic duct 21. The hormone that promotes the flow of bile and of pancreatic juice containing enzymes is: Answer: cholecystokinin 22. The longitudinal ribbon of smooth muscle visible on the outer surfaces of the colon just beneath the serosa are the: Answer: taenia coli 23. The vermiform appendix is dominated by what type of lymphatic structures in the mucosa and submucosa? Answer: lymphoid nodules 24. The vitamins liberated by bacterial action and absorbed in the large intestine are: Answer: biotin, pantothenic acid, and vitamin K 25. Which of the following organic nutrients are not absorbed by capillaries in the intestinal villi? Answer: lipids 26. The nutrients that can be absorbed without preliminary processing but may involve special transport mechanisms are: Answer: water, electrolytes, and vitamins 27. The enzyme lactase, which digests lactose to glucose and galactose, is synthesized by: Answer: the stomach 28. Hydrochloric acid in the stomach functions primarily to: Answer: facilitate lipid digestion 29. The intestinal epithelium absorbs monosaccharides by: Answer: facilitated diffusion and cotransport mechanisms 30. When two fluids are separated by a selectively permeable membrane, water tends to flow into the solution that has the: Answer: higher concentration of solutes 31. An error in swallowing could most likely be detected by the: Answer: larynx 32. Many visceral smooth muscle networks show rhythmic cycles of activity in the absence of neural stimulation due to the presence of: Answer: pacesetter cells that spontaneously depolarize and trigger contraction of entire muscular sheets 33. The reason a completely dry food bolus cannot be swallowed is: Answer: friction with the walls of the esophagus makes peristalsis ineffective 34. Gastric glands, which produce most of the gastric juice, are abundant in which of the following regions of the stomach? Answer: A and B. a. fundus. b. body 35. The two factors that play an important part in the movement of chyme from the stomach to the small intestine are: Answer: stomach distension and gastrin release 36. The plicae of the intestinal mucosa, which bears the intestinal villi, are structural features that provide for: Answer: increased total surface area for absorption 37. The enteroendocrine cells of the intestinal crypts are responsible for producing the intestinal hormones: Answer: cholecystokinin and secretin 8. Villikinin, motilin, and somatostatin are produced in the: Answer: small intestine 39. The primary function(s) of the gastrointestinal juice is (are) to: Answer: all of the above. a. moisten the chyme. b. assist in buffering acids. c. dissolve digestive enzymes and products of digestion 40. An immediate increase in the rates of glandular secretion and peri staltic activity in all segments of the small intestine are a result of the: Answer: gastroenteric reflex 41. The primary effect of secretin is to cause a(n): Answer: increase in secretion of water and buffers by the pancreas and the liver 42. The peptide hormone that causes the release of insulin from the pancreatic islets is: Answer: GIP 43. How does the mucosa of the rectum compare with that of the colon and cecum? Answer: The colon and cecum are lined with a simple columnar epithelium for absorption, whereas the rectum is lined with stratified squamous epithelium because it is next to an opening to the exterior. 44. The muscular sphincter that guards the entrance between the ileum and the cecum is the: Answer: ileocecal valve 45. Which produces the least number of contractions to force food through the digestive tract on a daily basis? Answer: large intestine 46. The average composition of the fecal waste material is: Answer: 75% water; 5% bacteria; 20% indigestible materials, inorganic matter, and epithelial remains 47. The hormone gastrin: Answer: increases the activity of parietal and chief cells 48. The two positive feedback loops involved in the defecation reflex are: Answer: stretch receptors in rectal walls, and the sacral parasympathetic system 49. The ‘doorway to the liver' (porta hepatis) is a complex that includes the: Answer: bile duct, hepatic portal vein, and hepatic artery 50. Triglycerides coated with proteins create a complex known as a: Answer: chylomicron End of chapter Questions 1. The enzymatic breakdown of large molecules into their basic building blocks is called: †¢ (d)chemical digestion. 2. The outer layer of the digestive tract is known as the: †¢(a)serosa. 3. Double sheets of peritoneum that provide support and stability for the organs of the peritoneal cavity are the: †¢ (d)mesenteries. 4. A branch of the portal vein, hepatic artery, and tributary of the bile duct form †¢ (c)a portal area. 5. Label the digestive system structures in the following figure. a) oral cavity, teeth, tongue; (b) liver; (c) gallbladder; (d) pancreas; (e) large intestine; (f) salivary glands; (g) pharynx; (h) esophagus; (i) stomach; (j) small intestine; (k) anus 6. Label the four layers of the digestive tract in the following figure. (a) mucosa; (b) submucosa; (c) muscularis externa; (d) serosa 7. Most of the digestive tract is lined by ___________ epithelium. e. simple columnar. 8. Regional movements that occur in the small intestine and function to churn and fragment the digestive material are called: (a. )segmentation. 9. Bile release from the gallbladder into the duodenum occurs only under the stimulation of: (a. )cholecystokinin. 10. Label the three segments of the small intestine in the following figure. (a) duodenum; (b) jejunum; (c) ileum. 11. The major function(s) of the large intestine is (are): (a. )reabsorption of water and compaction of feces. (b. )absorption of vitamins liberated by bacterial action. (c. )storage of fecal material prior to defecation. (d. )a, b, and c. 12. Vitamins generated by bacteria in the colon are: (c)vitamin K, biotin, and pantothenic acid. 13. The final enzymatic steps in the digestive process are accomplished by: (a. ) brush border enzymes of the microvilli. 14. What are the six steps of digestion? Digestion involves (1. ) ingestion; (2. ) mechanical processing; (3. ) secretion; (4. ) digestion (conversion into a form usable by cells); (5. ) absorption; and (6. ) excretion. 15. Name and describe the layers of the digestive tract, proceeding from the innermost layer to the outermost layer. Layers of the digestive tract are (1. ) the mucosa: the epithelial layer that performs chemical digestion and absorption of nutrients; (2. the submucosa: the connective tissue layer containing lymphatic and blood vessels and the submucosal nerve plexus; (3. ) the muscularis externa: the smooth muscle layer containing the myenteric nerve plexus; and (4. ) the serosa: the outermost layer, epithelium and connective tissue that forms the visceral peritoneum (or connective tissue that forms the adventitia). 16. What three basic mechanisms reg ulate the activities of the digestive tract? Activities of the digestive tract are regulated by neural, hormonal, and local mechanisms. 17. What are the three phases of swallowing, and how are they controlled? The three phases of swallowing—the buccal, pharyngeal, and esophageal phases—are controlled by the swallowing center of the medulla oblongata via the trigeminal and glossopharyngeal cranial nerves. The motor commands originating at the swallowing center are distributed by cranial nerves V, IX, X, and XII. Along the esophagus, primary peristaltic contractions are coordinated by afferent and efferent fibers within the glossopharyngeal and vagus cranial nerves, but secondary peristaltic contractions occur in the absence of CNS instructions. 8. What are the primary digestive functions of the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder? The pancreas provides digestive enzymes, plus bicarbonate ions that elevate the pH of the chyme. The liver produces bile and is also the primary organ involved in regulating the composition of circulating blood. The gallbladder stores and releases bile, which contains additional buffe rs and bile salts that facilitate the digestion and absorption of lipids. 19. Which hormones produced by duodenal enteroendocrine cells effectively coordinate digestive functions? The hormones include the following: enterocrinin, which stimulates the submucosal glands of the duodenum; secretin, which stimulates the pancreas and liver to increase the secretion of water and bicarbonate ions; cholecystokinin (CCK), which causes an increase in the release of pancreatic secretions and bile into the duodenum, inhibits gastric activity, and appears to have CNS effects that reduce the sensation of hunger; gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP), which stimulates insulin release at pancreatic islets and the activity of the duodenal submucosal glands; vasoactive ntestinal peptide (VIP), which stimulates the secretion of intestinal glands, dilates regional capillaries, and inhibits acid production in the stomach; gastrin, which is secreted by G cells in the duodenum when they are exposed to large quantities of incompletely digested proteins; and, in small quantities, motilin, which stimulates intestinal contractions, villikinin, which promotes the movement of villi and associat ed lymph flow, and somatostatin, which inhibits gastric secretion. 20. What are the three primary functions of the large intestine? The large intestine reabsorbs water and compacts the intestinal contents into feces, absorbs important vitamins liberated by bacterial action, and stores fecal material prior to defecation. 21. What two positive feedback loops are involved in the defecation reflex? Positive feedback loops in the defecation reflex involve (1. ) stretch receptors in the rectal walls, which promote a series of peristaltic contractions in the colon and rectum, moving feces toward the anus; and (2. the sacral parasympathetic system, also activated by the stretch receptors, which stimulates peristalsis via motor commands distributed by the pelvic nerves. 22. During defecation, (a. )stretch receptors in the rectal wall initiate a series of peristaltic contractions in the colon and rectum. (b. )stretch receptors in the rectal wall activate parasympathetic centers in the sacral region of the spinal cord. (e. )only a and b occur. 23. Increased parasy mpathetic stimulation of the intestine would result in: (e. )none of these. 24. A drop in pH below 4. 5 in the duodenum stimulates the secretion of (a)secretin. 5. Through which layers of a molar would an oral surgeon drill to perform a root canal (removal of the alveolar nerve in a severely damaged tooth)? A root canal involves drilling through the enamel and the dentin. 26. How is the epithelium of the stomach protected from digestion? The stomach is protected from digestion by mucous secretions of its epithelial lining and by neural and hormonal control over the times and rates of acid secretion. 27. How does each of the three phases of gastric secretion promote and facilitate gastric control? (1. ) The cephalic phase of gastric secretion egins with the sight or thought of food. Directed by the CNS, this phase prepares the stomach to receive food. (2. ) The gastric phase begins with the arrival of food in the stomach; this phase is initiated by distension of the stomach, an incre ase in the pH of the gastric contents, and the presence of undigested materials in the stomach. (3. ) The intestinal phase begins when chyme starts to enter the small intestine. This phase controls the rate of gastric emptying and ensures that the secretory, digestive, and absorptive functions of the small intestine can proceed reasonably efficiently. 8. Nutritionists have found that after a heavy meal, the pH of blood increases slightly, especially in the veins that carry blood away from the stomach. What causes this â€Å"postenteric alkaline tide†? After a heavy meal, bicarbonate ions pass from the parietal cells of the stomach into the extracellular fluid, causing the pH of the extracellular fluid to rise. As the extracellular fluid exchanges ions with the blood, the blood pH also increases. 29. Some people with gallstones develop pancreatitis. How could this occur? If a gallstone is small enough, it can pass through the common bile duct and block the pancreatic duct. Enzymes from the pancreas then cannot reach the small intestine. As the enzymes accumulate, they irritate the duct and ultimately the exocrine pancreas, producing pancreatitis. 30. Harry is suffering from an obstruction in his colon. He notices that when he urinates, the color of his urine is much darker than normal, and he wonders if there is any relationship between the color of his urine and his intestinal obstruction. What would you tell him? The darker color of his urine is probably due to increased amounts of the pigment urobilin, which gives urine its normal yellow color. Urobilin is derived from urobilinogen, which is formed in the large intestine by the action of intestinal bacteria on bile pigments. In an intestinal obstruction, the bile pigments cannot be eliminated by their normal route, so a larger-than-normal amount diffuses into the blood, where it is eliminated by the kidneys. 31. A condition known as lactose intolerance is characterized by painful abdominal cramping, gas, and diarrhea. The cause of the problem is an inability to digest the milk sugar, lactose. How would this cause the observed signs and symptoms? If an individual cannot digest lactose, this sugar passes into the large intestine in an undigested form. The presence of extra sugar in the chyme increases its osmolarity, so less water is reabsorbed by the intestinal mucosa. The bacteria that inhabit the large intestine can metabolize the lactose, and in the process they produce large amounts of carbon dioxide. This gas overstretches the intestine, which stimulates local reflexes that increase peristalsis. The combination of more-fluid contents and increased peristalsis causes diarrhea. The overexpansion of the intestine by gas, which is directly related to increased gas production by the bacteria, causes the severe pain and abdominal cramping. 32. Recently, more people have turned to surgery to help them lose weight. One form of weight control surgery involves stapling a portion of the stomach shut, creating a smaller volume. How would such a surgery result in weight loss? The primary effect of such surgeries would be a reduction in the volume of food (and thus in the amount of calories) consumed because the person feels full after eating a small amount. This can result in significant weight loss. CheckPoints Page 882 1. Identify the organs of the digestive system. Organs of the digestive system include the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and accessory organs (salivary glands, liver, and pancreas). 2. List and define the six primary functions of the digestive system. The six primary functions of the digestive system include the following: (1) ingestion = consciously eating food; (2) mechanical processing = crushing and shearing foodstuffs to make them more susceptible to enzymatic attack; (3) digestion = the chemical breakdown of food into smaller products for absorption; (4) secretion = the release of water, acids, and other substances by the epithelium of the digestive tract and by glandular organs; (5) absorption = movement of digested particles across the digestive epithelium and into the interstitial fluid of the digestive tract; and (6) excretion = the removal of waste products from the body. . What is the importance of the mesenteries? The mesenteries—sheets consisting of two layers of serous membrane separated by loose connective tissue—support and stabilize the organs in the abdominopelvic cavity and provide a route for the associated blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels. 4. Name the layers of the gastrointestinal t ract from superficial to deep. The layers of the gastrointestinal tract, from superficial to deep, are the serosa, muscularis externa, submucosa, and mucosa (adjacent to the lumen). 5. Which is more efficient in propelling intestinal contents from one place to another: peristalsis or segmentation? The waves of contractions that constitute peristalsis are more efficient in propelling intestinal contents than segmentation, which is basically a churning action that mixes intestinal contents with digestive fluids. 6. What effect would a drug that blocks parasympathetic stimulation of the digestive tract have on peristalsis? A drug that blocks parasympathetic stimulation, which increases muscle tone and activity in the digestive tract, would slow peristalsis. Page 888 7. Name the structures associated with the oral cavity. Structures associated with the oral cavity include the tongue, salivary glands, and teeth. 8. Which type of epithelium lines the oral cavity? The oral cavity is lined by a stratified squamous epithelium, which provides protection against friction or abrasion by foodstuffs. 9. The digestion of which nutrient would be affected by damage to the parotid salivary glands? Damage to the parotid salivary glands, which secrete the carbohydrate-digesting enzyme salivary amylase, would interfere with the digestion of complex carbohydrates. 10. Which type of tooth is most useful for chopping off bits of relatively rigid foods? The incisors are the teeth best suited for chopping (or cutting or shearing) pieces of relatively rigid food, such as raw vegetables. 11. Where exactly in the human body is the fauces? The fauces is the dividing line between the oral cavity and the pharynx. 12. Describe the structure and function of the pharynx. The pharynx is an anatomical space that receives a food bolus or liquids and passes them to the esophagus as part of the swallowing process. 13. Identify the muscles associated with the pharynx. Muscles associated with the pharynx are pharyngeal constrictor muscles, the palatopharyngeus and stylopharyngeus muscles, and palatal muscles. Page 890 14. Name the structure connecting the pharynx to the stomach. The structure connecting the pharynx to the stomach is the esophagus. 15. Compared to other segments of the digestive tract, what is unusual about the muscularis externa of the esophagus? The muscularis externa of the esophagus is an unusual segment of the digestive tract because it (1) contains skeletal muscle cells along most of the length of the esophagus and (2) is surrounded by an adventitia rather than a serosa. 6. What is occurring when the soft palate and larynx elevate and the glottis closes? When the soft palate and larynx elevate and the glottis closes, swallowing (deglutition) is occurring. Page 897 17. Name the four major regions of the stomach. The four regions of the stomach are the cardia, fundus, body, and pylorus. 18. Discuss the significance of the low pH in the stomach. The low pH of the stomach creates an acidic environment that kills most microbes ingested with food, denatures proteins and inactivates most enzymes in food, helps break down plant cell walls and meat connective tissue, and activates pepsin. 9. How does a large meal affect the pH of blood leaving the stomach? Large (especially protein-containing) meals stimulate increased stomach acid secretion. Because the hydrogen ions of stomach acid come from blood entering the stomach, blood leaving the stomach will have fewer hydrogen ions and thus a higher pH. This phenomenon is referred to as the alkaline tide. 20. When a person suffers from chronic gastric ulcers, the branches of the vagus nerves that serve the stomach are sometimes cut in an attempt to provide relief. Why might this be an effective treatment? The vagus nerves contain parasympathetic motor fibers that can stimulate gastric secretions, even if food is not present in the stomach (the cephalic phase of gastric digestion). Cutting the branches of the vagus nerves that supply the stomach would prevent this type of secretion from occurring and thereby reduce the likelihood of ulcer formation. Page 910 21. Name the three regions of the small intestine from proximal to distal. The three regions of the small intestine are the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. 22. How is the small intestine adapted for the absorption of nutrients? The small intestine has several adaptations that increase its surface area and thus its absorptive capacity. The walls of the small intestine are thrown into folds, the plicae circulares. The tissue that covers the plicae circulares forms fingerlike projections, the villi. The cells that cover the villi have an exposed surface covered by small fingerlike projections, the microvilli. In addition, the small intestine has a very rich supply of blood vessels and lymphatic vessels, which transport the nutrients that are absorbed. 23. Does a high-fat meal raise or lower the level of cholecystokinin in the blood? A high-fat meal would raise the cholecystokinin level in the blood. 24. How would the pH of the intestinal contents be affected if the small intestine did not produce secretin? The hormone secretin, among other things, stimulates the pancreas to release fluid high in buffers to neutralize the chyme that enters the duodenum from the stomach. If the small intestine did not secrete secretin, the pH of the intestinal contents would be lower than normal. 25. The digestion of which nutrient would be most impaired by damage to the exocrine pancreas? Damage to the exocrine pancreas would most impair the digestion of fats (lipids), because it is the primary source of lipases. Even though such damage would also reduce carbohydrate and protein digestion, enzymes for digesting these nutrients are produced by other digestive system structures, including the salivary glands (carbohydrates), the small intestine (carbohydrates and proteins), and the stomach (proteins). Page 916 26. Identify the four regions of the colon. The four regions of the colon are the ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, and sigmoid colon. 27. What are some major histological differences between the large intestine and the small intestine? The large intestine is larger in diameter than the small intestine, but its relatively thin wall lacks villi and has an abundance of mucous cells and intestinal glands. 28. Differentiate between haustral churning and mass movements. In mass movements, which occur a few times per day throughout the transverse colon and the distal portions of the large intestine, strong peristaltic contractions move material along the length of the colon. In haustral churning, segmentation movements mix the contents of adjacent haustra. Page 921 29. What kinds of nutrients does the body require? Nutrients required by the body are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water. 30. What component of food would increase the number of chylomicrons in the lacteals? Because chylomicrons are formed from the fats digested in a meal, fats increase the number of chylomicrons in the lacteals. 31. The absorption of which vitamin would be impaired by the removal of the stomach? Removal of the stomach would interfere with the absorption of vitamin B12, a process that requires intrinsic factor, produced by the parietal cells of the stomach. 2. Why is it that diarrhea is potentially life threatening, but constipation is not? When an individual with diarrhea loses fluid and electrolytes faster than they can be replaced, the resulting dehydration can be fatal. Although constipation can be quite uncomfortable, it does not interfere with any life-supporting processes; the few toxic waste products normally eliminated by the digestive system can move into the blood and be eliminated by the kidneys. Page 922 33. Identify general digestive system changes that occur with aging. General age-related digestive system changes include decreased secretory mechanisms, decreased gastric and intestinal motility, decreased mitotic activity of epithelial cells, and loss of tone; cumulative damage becomes more apparent, cancer rates increase, and dehydration occurs as a result of decreased osmoreceptor sensitivity. 34. Identify the functional relationships between the digestive system and other body systems. The digestive system absorbs the organic substrates, vitamins, ions, and water required by cells of all other body systems. 35. What body systems may be affected by inadequate calcium absorption? The skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, and cardiovascular systems may all be affected by inadequate absorption of calcium. Review Questions Labeling 1. Label the following histological structures of the digestive tract from the image of the small intestine section. 1. 1 myenteric plexus D. 1. 2 submucosal gland A. 1. 3mucosa B. 1. 4serosa (visceral peritoneum) E. 1. 5 submucosa F. 1. 6muscularis externa C. 2. match the terms with the appropriate regions and structures of the stomach. 2. 1 fundus D. 2. 2 oblique muscle layer overlying mucosa E. 2. 3circular muscle layer B. 2. 4cardia C. 2. rugae F. 2. 6pyloric sphincter A. 3. Correctly match the terms with the appropriate structures of the liver lobule. 3. 1 central vein B. 3. 2 hepatocytes A. 3. 3 bile duct F. 3. 4 bile canaliculi E. 3. 5sinusoid C. 3. 6Kupffer cells D. Matching 1. Put the following structures involved in bile transport in the proper order, from the liver to the gallbladder and on to the small intestine, by matc hing them (1) through (6): Bile canaliculi Bile ductules Right and left hepatic ducts Common hepatic ducts Cystic duct Common bile duct 2. Match the following cells and glands with their correct products: 2. Parietal cell HCl 2. 2Chief cell . Pepsinogen 2. 3G cells Gastrin 2. 4Intestinal glands Cholecystokinin 2. 5Brunner glands Urogastrone 3. Match the following substrates and products with the enzyme that catalyzes the reaction: 3. 1 Proteins to short-chain polypeptides . Pepsin 3. 2Dipeptides and tripeptides to amino acids Exopeptidase 3. 3trypsinogen to trypsin Enterokinase 3. 4A disaccharide to monosaccharides . Lactase 4. Match the following intestinal hormones to their correct functions: 4. 1Gastrin . This stimulates of increased motility in the stomach and the production of acids and enzymes. . 2Gastric inhibitory peptide . Secreted when fats and especially glucose enters the intestine, this enzyme triggers the release of insulin at the pancreas. 4. 3Cholecystokinin This is secreted when chyme is rich in lipids and partially digested proteins. It triggers the opening of the hepatopancreatic sphincter. 4. 4 Enterocrinin . This is released when chyme enters the small intestine and it stimulates mucin production. 5. Match the organ of the digestive system with its function: 5. 1Mastication of food . Teeth 5. 2Carries solid foods and liquids to the stomach . Esophagus . 3Bulk storage of ingested food, chemical and mechanical breakdown of ingested food, and production of the intrinsic factor . Stomach 5. 4Digestion and absorption of nutrients . Small intestine 5. 5Reabsorption of water, absorption of important vitamins, and storage of fecal matter . Large intestine 5. 6 Temporary storage of fecal matter . Rectum Multiple Choice 1. Which of the following is a function of the digestive tract? Answer: a. Ingestion b. Digestion c. Excretion d. Absorption 2. From the outside in, the correct order of the layers of the digestive tract is Answer: erosa, muscularis externa, submucosa, mucosa. 3. The movements of the muscularis externa are coordinated by the Answer: myenteric plexus. 4. Waves of smooth muscle contraction that propel materials along the digestive tract are called Answer: peristalsis. 5. The mesentery that hangs like an apron from the lateral and inferior portion of the stomach is the Answer: greater omentum. 6. The lingual frenulum Answer: a. connects the tongue to the floor of the oral cavity. b. is a thin fold of mucous membrane. c. may need to be cut if the condition of ankyloglossia exists. 7. Incisors are used for Answer: lipping or cutting. 8. The mucosa and submucosa of the esophagus are folded for Answer: to allow the expansion of the esophagus during the passage of a large bolus. 9. Which of the following is a function of the stomach? Answer: a. Mechanical breakdown of food b. Production of intrinsic factor 10. Chief cells secrete Answer: pepsinogen. 11. When the stomach is empty, the mucosa is thrown into folds called Answer: rugae. 12. When you walk into a Mexican restaurant and smell the savory aroma of fajitas, which phase of gastric activity is triggered? Answer: Cephalic phase 13. Peyer patches Answer: re lymphoid nodules located in the ileum. 14. The wall of the small intestine bears a series of folds called the Answer: plicae circulares. 15. The duodenum differs from the rest of the small intestine in that its submucosa contains many __________ that secrete mucus. Answer: Brunner glands 16. The gastroenteric reflex stimulates motility Answer: along the entire length of the small intestine. 17. Sympathetic stimulation Answer: inhibits submucosal glands. 18. Concentrated crystals of minerals and salts in the gallbladder produce Answer: a condition called cholelithiasis. 19. Pancreatic juice is Answer: alkaline. 20. Which of the following is not a function of the liver? Answer: Immunologic regulation 21. Liver cells, or hepatocytes, receive blood from the Answer: a)hepatic artery. b)hepatic portal vein. 22. Bile acts as a(n) Answer: emulsifier. 23. The defecation reflex Answer: a. involves long and short reflexes. b. involves two positive feedback loops. 24. The large intestine absorbs which of the following vitamins from colonic bacteria? Answer: a. Biotin b. Vitamin B5, or pantothenic acid c. Vitamin K 25. Fat-soluble vitamins move across the intestinal mucosa by Answer: iffusion. True and False 1. The pharynx belongs to both the respiratory and digestive systems. Answer: True As air is inhaled it passes through the pharynx into the trachea, and as food is swallowed it passes through the pharynx into the esophagus. 2. Cuspids are cutting or clipping teeth. Answer: False Incisors are cutting or clipping teeth. 3. A drop in the pH of the chyme coming from the stomach trigge rs the release of CCK. Answer: False CCK is a hormone released when chyme is full of fatty acids and triglycerides. 4. The haustra are formed by contraction of the taenia coli. Answer: True Expansion and elongation of the colon is accomplished by haustra; how do the haustra expand and elongate? 5. The region of the tooth between the crown and the root is called the gingival space. Answer: False The gingival space is between the gum and the tooth. Fill In the Blank 1. The muscularis externa propels materials from one portion of the digestive tract to the other by a series of wavelike contractions called peristalsis, while in most areas of the small intestine ___ segmentation _______ movements churn and fragment digestive materials. 2. Pancreatic juice is secreted by units known as pancreatic ____ acini ______. 3. ___ Peptidases _______ are proteolytic enzymes that break small peptide chains into amino acids. 4. The transverse folds that make up the intestinal lining and provide more surface area for absorption are called __ plicae ________. 5. The glycoprotein __ intrinsic factor ________, necessary for vitamin B12 absorption, is produced in the stomach. Multiple Choice 2 1. The layer of the digestive tract that contains large blood vessels, lymphatics, and a network of nerve fibers called the plexus of Meissner is the Answer: ubmucosa. 2. Each of the following products of digestion is taken up by capillaries in the small intestine except one. Identify the exception. Answer: Chylomicrons 3. Which of the following statements is false concerning the teeth? Answers: Dentin, the material that makes up the enamel of the teeth, is a type of spongy bone, thus giving the tooth its hardness. A layer of a material called ce mentum covers the dentin of the root and attaches the tooth to the periodontal ligament. 4. Which salivary glands produce a thick serous secretion containing large amounts of salivary amylase? Answer: Parotid glands . Which type of tooth is conical with a pointed tip and used for tearing and slashing? Answer: Cuspids or canines 6. During the pharyngeal phase of deglutition Answer: the larynx elevates and the uvula and soft palate block the nasopharynx. 7. Which of the following statements is false concerning aging and the digestive system? Answer: Dehydration becomes less common as a result of the body's inability to effectively rid itself of water. 8. Which of the following is not a pancreatic enzyme? Answer: Pepsinogen 9. Which of the following statements is false regarding the Kupffer cells of the liver? Answer: Kupffer cells have the ability to produce bile. 10. Of the 1,500 mL of material that enters the large intestine on a daily basis, approximately how much water in the material is reabsorbed? Answer: 1,200 mL 11. During the defecation reflex Answer: parasympathetic centers in the sacral region of the spinal cord stimulate mass movements. 12. Each of the following is a brush border enzyme except one. Identify the exception. Answer: Amylase 13. Fatty acids and monoglycerides interact with the bile salts in chyme to form small, lipid-bile salt complexes called Answer: micelles. 4. Peyer patches are associated with which region of the intestine? Answer: Ileum Peyer patches are aggregates of lymphoid tissue found in the ileum. 15. Treatment for a morbidly obese man includes surgery to reduce the length of his intestine. Which region of the small intestine should be removed to achieve greatest weight loss? Answer: Jejunum The jejunum is responsible for the majority of chemical digest ion and nutrient absorption. Section 2: Concept Review Now let's see what you have learned about Digestion and Absorption. I will give you a question and two possible answers. Then I will pause while you consider the choices and select your answer. After a few seconds, I will give you the correct answer with an explanation. Question 1 Enzymes and buffers are considered part of which type of digestion? Is it A) mechanical or B) chemical? The answer is B) chemical. Mechanical digestion involves mixing, churning, and chewing. Question 2 What do we call movement of food without direction in the digestive tract? Is it A) peristalsis or B) segmentation? The answer is B) segmentation. Peristalsis is the movement of food forward through the digestive tract. Question 3 Where does major absorption of food substances occur? Is it in A) the stomach or B) the small intestine? The answer is B) the small intestine. Almost all absorption occurs in the small intestine. Question 4 Which type of enzyme digests carbohydrates? Is it A) amylase or B) peptidase? The answer is A) amylase. Peptidase breaks down proteins. Question 5 Which side of the epithelial cells lining the digestive tract faces in towards the lumen? Is it A) apical or B) basal? The answer is A) apical. The basal surface fuses the cells to the deep tissues. Question 6 What is the term for emulsified, digested lipids? Is it A) chylomicrons or B) micelles? The answer is B) micelles. Chylomicrons are cholesterol-fat complexes that have a protein coating. Question 7 Which portion of the small intestine serves as a mixing bowl for substances from the pancreas, liver, and stomach? Is it A) the duodenum or B) the ileum? The answer is A) the duodenum. As the food enters the small intestines, enzymes, buffers, and bile also enter at the duodenum Question 8 In which part of your digestive system is most of the water reabsorbed? Is it A) the colon or B) the small intestine? The answer is B) the small intestine. Up to ninety-five percent of the water entering the digestive tract is absorbed here. That's the end of this section. Section 3: Rapid Review Now we will do a quick set of review questions on Digestion and Absorption. I will give you a question and then only a couple of seconds to give your answer. After a brief pause, I will give you the correct answer. Let's start with some true or false questions. Question 1 True or false? Bile is produced by the gallbladder. Answer: False Question 2 True or False? Once food is digested in the stomach, it is called chyme. Answer: True Question 3 A chylomicron is an example of a digested protein. Answer: False Okay, now let's try some multiple choice questions. Question 4 Which substance is absorbed through the intestinal lining? Is it A) monosaccharides or B) nucleic acids? Answer: A) monosaccharides Question 5 What is the term for breaking down lipids? Is it A) lipogenesis or B) emulsification? Answer: B) emulsification Great! Now let's try some short answer questions. Question 6 Which accessory organ produces amylases, lipases, buffers, and hormones? Answer: The pancreas Question 7 Most of the fat absorption occurs in which part of the small intestine? Answer: The ileum Question 8 Where does the process of chemical digestion start? Answer: In the mouth That's the end of this section.